ge11-5.3· Unit 5: Adjectives, Adverbs & Clauses· ~14 min

Sentence structure, conjunctions and linkers

Joining ideas with conjunctions and linkers of contrast, reason, purpose, result and addition.

Linking words join ideas, and the right one depends on both meaning and grammar. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so) connect two equal clauses, while subordinating conjunctions (because, although, since, so that) introduce a dependent clause with its own subject and verb. The key trap is structure: contrast can be shown with 'although/though/even though + a clause' but with 'despite/in spite of + a noun or -ing form' (Although it was cold... = Despite the cold...). Reason is 'because/since/as + clause' but 'because of/due to + noun'. Result connectors include 'so + adjective + that', 'such + (a) + adjective + noun + that' and the sentence linker 'therefore'. Purpose uses 'so that + clause' or 'in order to / to + infinitive'. Linkers like however, moreover and therefore usually start a new sentence and are followed by a comma. For example: 'It was raining heavily. However, we decided to go out.'

Key terms

Coordinating conjunction — A word (and, but, or, so) that joins two equal, independent clauses, each able to stand alone as a sentence.
Subordinating conjunction — A word (because, since, although, so that) that introduces a dependent clause with its own subject and verb but which cannot stand alone.
Linker (sentence connector) — An adverbial connector such as however, moreover or therefore that links the idea of one sentence to the next; it usually starts a new sentence and is followed by a comma.
Contrast linker — A word showing two opposing ideas: although/though/even though + a clause, despite/in spite of + a noun or -ing form, or however to start a new sentence.
Reason linker — A word giving the cause: because/since/as + a clause, or because of/due to + a noun phrase.
Result linker — A structure showing a consequence: so + adjective/adverb + that, such + (a) + noun + that, or the connector so / therefore / consequently.
Common linkers: form and meaning
LinkerFunctionFollowed byExample
becausereasona clause (subject + verb)We stayed home because it was raining.
because ofreasona noun phraseWe stayed home because of the rain.
althoughcontrasta clause (subject + verb)Although it was raining, we went out.
despite / in spite ofcontrasta noun or -ing formDespite the rain, we went out.
howevercontrasta new sentence, then a commaIt was raining. However, we went out.
soresulta clause (result of the first)It was raining, so we stayed home.
Contrast linkers: although vs despite vs however
LinkerFollowed byPositionExample
although / even thougha clause (subject + verb)joins two clauses in one sentenceAlthough she was tired, she finished.
despite / in spite ofa noun or -ing formjoins to a noun phrase in one sentenceDespite being tired, she finished.
howevera clause (a new sentence)starts a new sentence, comma after itShe was tired. However, she finished.
✎Choosing between although and despite
  1. 1Sentence: ___ the heavy rain, the match was not cancelled.
  2. 2Check what follows: The gap is followed by 'the heavy rain', which is a noun phrase, not a subject + verb clause.
  3. 3Apply the rule: Although/Even though need a full clause; despite/in spite of take a noun or -ing form. A noun phrase follows, so although is wrong.
  4. 4Answer: Despite the heavy rain, the match was not cancelled. (To use although, you would need a clause: Although it rained heavily, the match was not cancelled.)
✎because vs because of
  1. 1Sentence: The train was delayed ___ the bad weather.
  2. 2Check what follows: The gap is followed by 'the bad weather', a noun phrase with no verb of its own.
  3. 3Apply the rule: Use because + a clause (because the weather was bad), but because of + a noun phrase. The phrase here is a noun, so plain because cannot be used.
  4. 4Answer: The train was delayed because of the bad weather.
🚫Common mistake

Do not put a noun after 'although'. Use although/even though + a clause (Although it was cold, ...), but despite/in spite of + a noun or -ing form (Despite the cold, ... / In spite of being cold, ...).

🚫Common mistake

Do not write 'because the rain'. Use because + a clause (because it rained) or because of/due to + a noun phrase (because of the rain). The same applies to due to and owing to, which also take a noun.

⚠️Caution

'However' is a sentence linker, not a coordinating conjunction. Start a new sentence and put a comma after it: 'It was raining. However, we went out.' Do not join two clauses with however the way you would with but.

💡Note

Match 'so' and 'such' to what follows: so + adjective/adverb + that (so boring that...), but such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + that (such an interesting book that...). Use so much/so many + noun for quantity (so many people that...).

Rules

  1. 1Use 'although / though / even though / whereas / while' + a full clause (subject + verb); use 'despite / in spite of' + a noun or -ing form. Add 'the fact that' to follow them with a clause.
  2. 2Use 'because / since / as' + a clause for reason, but 'because of / due to' + a noun phrase.
  3. 3Use 'so + adjective/adverb + that' and 'such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + that' for result; 'so much/many + noun + that' for quantity.
  4. 4Express purpose with 'so that' + clause (often with can/could/will/would) or with 'in order to / to' + the base verb.
  5. 5Use paired conjunctions correctly: 'both ... and', 'either ... or', 'neither ... nor', 'not only ... but also'. Form question tags with the opposite polarity, e.g. positive sentence + negative tag (You're tired, aren't you?).

Practice

15 easy · 15 medium · 15 hard

10 random questions per test

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